This is a retitled chapter from The Sacred History of Being (originally titled: 'Being in Homer'). It analyses Book XVIII of The Iliad. It is something of an eye-opener about the intellectual life of what became known as the Greek Heroic Age. Much of the intellectual and tropic detail in this book of The Iliad strongly resembles ideas and themes which can be found in Mesopotamian and Phoenician sources.
It is not much studied in modern times for an understanding of Greek life and thought, since it is full of fantastical elements, whose context we think we lost long ago. It may be studied for the language and the poetry, and also for the narrative of a small but crucial part of the conflict between the Achaeans and the city of Troy.
There is an exception however, which is discussed (among other things) in this chapter. It is a favourite subject of classicists and ancient historians, but they find it hard to agree about why the passage is present in the poem, and what it means. Looking at the entire book, which hangs together extremely well as an artistic enterprise, it is perfectly clear why the passage is present, and what its meaning is.
The text of the chapter is unchanged, and I've retained the footnotes (though they have been renumbered).
TY, February 19, 2018.
***
A passage in Homer’s Iliad, often thought to be a
later interpolation in the text, the famous ‘Shield of Achilles’ episode,
features a collocation of images, struck together on an imaginary shield. The
shield edge is bounded by Ocean, which among the ancient Greeks connotes
border, the edge of the world. It is also the place of generation, which is
associated with Being and the gods. There is a scene where a dispute is being
resolved, which is an image of justice. This is an allusion (in the Greek context)
to the sun God Apollo, who, like his Mesopotamian counterpart, Shamash, is a
god of justice. This image, rather than being a later interpolation, can be
shown to echo the themes in the same section of the Iliad.
If we follow the story from the beginning of the eighteenth
book of the Iliad, where Thetis comforts her son Achilles who is
grieving for the death of his friend and kinsman Patroclus, we shall see how
the images point to an articulate idea of Being. The essence of the events in
this book is that Thetis promises to procure her son Achilles new armour from
Hephaestus. At the command of Hera, Achilles attacks and strikes terror into
the enemy. The body of Patroclus is recovered, and prepared for funeral rites.
The armour is prepared by Hephaestus for Achilles.
Achilles is expecting to die, recalling that his mother once
informed him that, though he was the bravest of the Myrmidons, he would, though
now still surviving, would leave the light of the sun ‘by the hands of the
Trojans’. Twice in this passage, his contemplation of the fate of the Achaeans
is described as a ‘revolving’ in his mind (and once in his soul), which is
reminiscent of Plato’s description of rational thought in the Living Animal. He
grieves for the fallen Patroclus, killed by Hector. He gives a dreadful moan,
and we are told that ‘his venerable mother heard him, while she was sitting in the depths of the sea.’ This
passage is a close parallel to the Mesopotamian image of Ea/Enki at home in the
midst of the waters of the Apsu. We are told that Thetis was beside her aged
father in the depths, and that she immediately lamented for her son’s grief. [i] We are also told that ‘all the goddesses
were assembled around her, as many Nereids as were at the bottom of the sea’,
so this is a place where a totality (of Nereids) is collected together. In the
Mesopotamian story the location is a house, whereas Thetis resides in a cave.
We are given a list of many of their names, and these repay
attention.
The list is Glauce, Thaleia, Cymodoce, Nesaea, Spio, Thoa,
and ‘large-eyed’ Halia, Cymothoë, Actaea, and Limnorea, Melita, Iaera,
Amphithoë, and Agave, Doto, Proto, Pherusa, and Dynamene, Dexamene, Amphinome,
and Callianira, Foris, Panope, and distinguished Galatea, Nemertes, Apseudes,
and Callianassa. In addition are
mentioned Clymene, Ianira and Ianassa, Maera, Orithya, and fair-haired Amathea.
There were others, but they are not named by Homer. The cave is described as
‘resplendent’ and full of Nereids.
Some of these are particularly interesting. Glauce as an
adjective might qualify thalassa as ‘gleaming sea,’ as it does at II, 34.
Thaleia probably connotes ‘abundance’ (thallo, as in thalassa), Nesaea means
‘island’ or ‘islet, from nēsos. Spio
probably means ‘cavern, cave or grotto’, derived from ‘speos’ (in Homer
appearing as speious). Halia may mean
‘blowing seaward’ (Homer uses haliaēs to mean this in the Odyssey. In connection with the epithet ‘large-eyed’, Halia is an
Ionian word meaning ‘assembly of the people’. Homer is punning), and Cymothoë
‘billowing waves’. Actaea means coast,
(Aktaia), Limnorea may connote a large pool of standing water, or directly
indicate the sea, Melita may be honeyed mead, or perhaps 'sweet water', and
Amphithoë suggests 'running quickly around,' as water does when it is loosed
from its bounds.
And so on. The pattern is clear. These are mainly attributes
of water or liquid in different states, and therefore a collection of terms
which might be used to describe aspects of the sea, or of the primal ocean,
which might be the focus of priestly contemplation. Other terms refer to things
associated with the sea, such as caves, and shorelines, and so on. We have here
a partial list of attributes and properties of images which reference the
divine. It may be that the origin of this list is one or more temple documents,
compiled for a cult centre, in order to standardise a set of images and
descriptions which might be used to approach the reality beyond images.
Ten of the names of the Nereids appear to be similar, but in
different forms. These are Amphithoë and Amphinome, Callianira and Callianassa,
Cymodoce and Cymothoë, Dynamene and Dexamene, and Ianira and Ianassa. The
pairing of names in divine genealogy is well known in Mesopotamia, and usually
indicates a twin birth. If this is the pattern which is being followed, it
suggests that the Nereids might have been part of a complete theology at one
time, perhaps imported from the near East, or perhaps brought to Greece by an
incoming population group. It is also possible that the Nereids are very old
and local to Greece. Unfortunately we have very little other information about
the Nereids from any source other than Homer. [ii] We do know that the Phoenician theology
was also focused on the depths of the sea, paralleling part of the Mesopotamian
theology, with the god Ea living in the abyss at the bottom of the ocean. And
that the Greeks did extensive business in their emporia along the coast of
Phoenicia.
Achilles grief stems in part from the fact that the armour
of Patroclus has been removed by the Trojans. Achilles own armour was also
taken by the Trojans. The decision of Thetis to supply her son with the finest
possible set of armour represents an inversion of the desecratory action of
Hector, which has a bearing on the design represented on the shield made by
Hephaestus, since it shows good order opposed to bad order.
Thetis and all the Nereids leave the cave, weeping, ‘and the
wave of the ocean was cleft around for them.’ This is an image which recalls
the creation, in that the ocean may be understood as a god, and to part the
waves is to cut the divine body in two, as described in both Plato's account of
the creation, and the Mesopotamian
account.
The concept of fate in the Iliad is strikingly inexorable,
like that found in Mesopotamian literature – Achilles says: ‘may I die then
immediately, since it was not destined that I should aid my companion now
slain.’ Nevertheless he asks that bad order be replaced with good, and so
‘therefore contention might be extinguished from gods and men; and anger, which
is wont to impel even the very wisest to be harsh.’ This idea is represented in
the design of the shield, with two communities, one of which is based on
brigandage, the other a place where contention has been banished. Thetis (‘the
silver footed’) had urged Achilles ‘not to enter the slaughter of Ares’ before
he sees her return at dawn with the armour from king Hephaestus.
Thetis then turns away from her son, and addresses the
Nereids, saying that they should now enter the ‘broad bosom of the deep’, about
to behold the ‘marine old man, and the mansions of my sire, and tell him all
things’. The Nereids return to Ocean here is not simply a retracing of steps,
but entry into the world of the divine. It is a place which must know all
things. Thetis travels alone to ‘lofty’ Olympus, to Hephaestus, ‘the skilful
artist,’ to ask if he is willing to make the armour.
In the meantime, Achilles is visited by the goddess Iris (peace),
sent by Hera, to remind him of the disgrace that would be the consequence of
the body of Patroclus being abandoned to the Trojans. She isn't urging
peace. However Achilles tells her of his
mother’s admonition not to join the battle until her return. Iris then urges
that he go toward the ditch and show himself to the Trojans, so that in their
terror they may desist from battle, at least for a while.
Achilles rose after the departure of Iris. The goddess
Minerva threw around his strong shoulders her fringed aegis. ‘And the divine
one of goddesses crowned his head around with a golden cloud, and from it she
kindled a shining flame’, and the flame from his head reached to the sky. He
stood, having advanced from the wall to the trench only, and did not mingle
with the Greeks, mindful of the advice of his mother. Three times he shouted
over the trench, and three times were the Trojans and their allies thrown into
confusion, with the assistance of Pallas Minerva. By this means the body of
Patroclus was recovered.
So Achilles did not fight, but recovered the body of
Patroclus by the use of his intelligence, through the assistance of the goddess
of wisdom. It is good order to succeed through throwing your enemies and their
allies into confusion, rather than achieving your aim by violence and
slaughter. This part of Homer's text reflects a time when social and political
issues were often resolved through angry and divisive contention. Thetis had
urged Achilles not to enter the slaughter of the god of warfare, Ares, until
she returned: Ares, in a sense, is as responsible for bad order as the Trojans
and their allies.
This is followed by another striking image involving Ocean.
‘Large-eyed, venerable Hera’ ‘sent the sun to return to the flowing of the
ocean, against his inclination.’ The sun therefore set, and the Greeks and the
Trojans stopped fighting. The Trojans assembled in their council before they
even thought to eat, which suggests they were impelled by anger more than
sense. They were addressed by ‘prudent’ Polydamus, the son of Panthus. The name
Panthus (Panthoos) again references the ideas of the telos and of Being, where
everything is embraced, including past and present. In fact, the son of Panthus
is described as one who, alone among them, ‘saw both the future and the past’.
Hector and Polydamus were both possessed of excellences and virtues. Born on
the same day, Hector excelled in counsel, and the other ‘greatly in the spear.’
Polydamus advised to guard the towers and the city overnight, dressed in their
armour. Hector effectively told him to shut up, and advised that they should
fight by the Greeks ships in the morning, and that if Achilles has arisen at
the ships, ‘it will be the worse for him’.
The irony here is that it is Polydamus, who excelled 'greatly
in the spear' and is therefore excellent in warfare, who makes the prudent
proposal. Hector, by contrast and against expectation, provided bad counsel. So
the Trojans assented to Hector, and cheered him. But they were foolish, since
Pallas Minerva ‘had taken their senses away from them.’ They assented to
Hector’s advising of destructive things, and no one assented to the prudent
counsel of Polydamus.
By this time (after sunset, when the sun is below the waves)
Thetis had reached the home of Hephaestus on Olympus – incorruptible, starry,
and remarkable among the brazen immortals. Hephaestus therefore is remarkable,
but not divine, though he possesses attributes of the divine. He makes statues of the gods, or in fact
‘makes gods’ as was the understanding of the early part of the 1st
millennium B.C.E. He thus has very
special attributes, like the Mesopotamian Nudimmud, and can make things in
heaven as well as on earth.
Homer tells us that Thetis found him sweating, working at
the bellows, making twenty tripods to stand around the wall of his ‘well-built
palace’. These tripods had golden wheels placed under the base of each, so that
‘of their own accord they might enter the heavenly council, and again return
home – a wonder to be seen.’
Here is another image which references the world of Being.
It also associates the divine world with the idea of council: the two are
associated through the idea of totality, since totality is an attribute of both
council and Being. And in a sense, they are interchangeable through their
common possession of totality. We are told of the perfection of the work which
has produced these tripods, as we were told of the perfection of the body of
the living animal in the Timaeus: “so much finish had they, but he had
not yet added the well-made handles, which he was preparing; and he was forging
the rivets.”
So we have three attributes of the divine referenced in this
passage: totality, perfection and council, struck together. The tripods have
golden and therefore incorruptible wheels. They are also circular, and
complete. By virtue of these attributes alone, they can pass into the
heavenly council, and also return, again by virtue of these attributes.
This is a clear anticipation of the theory of wholes or
totalities attributed to Pythagoras, and repeated by Plato, in which
completeness by itself allows participation in the divine, and indeed identity
with the divine. This passage is virtually impossible to explain outside the
context of a theory of this sort. In which case, the theory of wholes and
totalities was known to Homer in the 9th or 8th century B.C.E. [iii]
The tripods are able to move between the worlds, which makes
sense, if the worlds are conceived of as being physically distinct - one way in
which commerce with the divine can be framed. That these remarkable objects are
tripods probably reflects two things - that the objects can have reality in
this world, and the worlds above and below this one. The tripod is also a
common ritual object in the early 1st millennium B.C.E, and not only in Greece.
It might be used to hold a vessel for burning incense, or for collecting the
blood of a sacrifice, and so on. The image carries these and other associations
of commerce with the divine world.
Thetis is greeted by Hephaestus, and then his wife Charis.
Hephaestus recalls that “an awful and revered goddess… saved me when distress
came upon me, fallen down far by the contrivance of my shameless mother, [iv] who wished to conceal me, being lame.” [v] He then focuses on the importance of
Ocean for him, saying: “Then should I have suffered sorrows in my mind, had not
Eurynome and Thetis received me in their bosom; Eurynome, daughter of the
refluent Ocean.” [vi] He tells us he was with them for nine
years, during which time he made in brass “many ingenious works of art,
buckles, twisted bracelets, and clasp-tubes, in the hollow cave,” while “round
us flowed the immense stream of Ocean, murmuring with foam: nor did any other
either of gods or mortal men know it; but Thetis and Eurynome, who preserved
me, knew it.” He asks Charis now to set before Thetis “good hospitable fare”,
and lays aside his tools. “He went out of the doors limping, and golden
handmaids, like unto living handmaidens, moved briskly about the king.” Here we
have the art of statuary associated with a former inhabitant of Ocean – and it
is the art of creating living statues of which Hephaestus is a master
craftsman.
We are told something of their attributes: “in their bosoms
was prudence with understanding, and within them was voice and strength; and
they are instructed in works by the immortal gods.” We have been told earlier
that Hephaestus can make objects which can enter the heavenly council of their
own accord, and return again, which was “a wonder to be seen”. So we know that
setting up statues within Heaven is within his abilities. He can make living
creatures which have within them the attributes of prudence and understanding.
They are also instructed in works by the immortal gods, which means that these
golden handmaids are expressions of the divine will and intention.
At this point Thetis makes her request to Hephaestus, that
he make armour for her son Achilles. The armour of Achilles was lost when
Patroclus was slain, since Achilles had given him his own. Thetis explains that
“All day they fought round the Scaean gates, and certainly on that day had
overturned Troy, had not Apollo slain, among the foremost warriors, the gallant
son of Menoetius, after having done such mischief, and given glory to Hector.”
Apollo is the god of justice as well as of the Sun, and so is the dispenser of
victory and defeat to men in battle. [vii]
It is particularly interesting to consider how it is that
negative characteristics can have positive qualities, as we find in the Iliad
and the Odyssey. Odysseus has the
epithet ‘Sacker of Cities’, and at the time Homer was writing, it is clear that
being a ‘sacker of cities’ was not seen universally as reprehensible to the
society of the time, but Homer himself objects to it. [viii] Hence the 'Shield of Achilles' passage,
where the contrast is made between a prosperous city and a city under siege,
open to destruction and the division of spoils. The idea is planted that the
rapacious behaviour of former times, in a time before reason, may not have much
to recommend it.
Underlying the idea that the ‘sacking of cities’ is
something which may have honour and glory associated with it, is the abstract notion
of greatness. The sacking of a city is greatly destructive, and so participates
(within this simplistic model) in greatness. What we have here is an idea which
fits within the mental model in which it is possible to connect with divinity
through extreme action. There would have been many objections to this, on the
grounds that such action did not promote the good, or good order. Hence it was
a question which would have exercised the Greeks as being a pattern of
behaviour which superficially made sense within a mental model of the world of
the late Bronze Age.
[i] It is interesting and possibly significant that Homer never mentions Nereus by name, but is referred to as the 'aged father' of Thetis.
[ii] It is well known that Homer composed the Iliad and the Odyssey somewhere in Anatolia, and so the Nereids may have been part of the theology of an Anatolian cult, rather than a Greek one. It is unnecessary to explore here that even in ancient Greece it was accepted by some that a significant number of their gods had a foreign origin.
[iii] The alternative would be to argue that not only is the 'Shield of Achilles' passage a later interpolation, but that much of the eighteenth book of the Iliad comes from a much later date. I don't think that would be a credible suggestion. The very fact that so much in Homer has been difficult to explain for so long, argues that the text we have comes from an age with a different set of preconceptions about how things work.
[iv] In later accounts, Hephaestus is son of Hera, without the intervention of a father. Here he is son of Zeus and Hera, sister and wife.
[v] The lameness of Hephaestus reflects the awe in which workers in metal were once held: they seem to work magic, and yet they are here on earth. They seem to work with heavenly fire, but are not actually divine.
[vi] Eurynome is daughter of Okeanos, as he says. But her name means something like 'wide pasture'. The first part of her name translates literally as 'broad' or 'wide'.
[vii] His equivalent in Assyria is Shamash, who has similar qualities, and is sometimes represented in palace reliefs as hovering over the field of battle, represented by his symbol of the winged circle.
[viii] 'Destruction of cities' is included among the lists of Sumerian 'mes'.
